... service, the material include steel, stainless steel, copper, aluminium and so on. Laser beam welding (LBW) ... ) resulting in small heat-affected zones and high heating and cooling rates. The spot size of ... steels, HSLA steels, stainless steel, aluminum, and titanium. Due to high cooling rates, cracking is ... lasers can operate in both continuous and pulsed mode, and the wavelength of the laser beam ...